My current research examines how the Sky Swiss League, Switzerland’s second-tier professional ice hockey competition, can enhance its brand identity, strengthen fan engagement, and increase its relevance within the Swiss sports ecosystem. To determine how the league can be effectively repositioned, I have collected over 1,000 responses from fans and spectators of competing clubs. The findings are analysed within the broader framework of both club-level and league-level dynamics, exploring their impact on sustained viewing intentions.

An intriguing aspect of this research is the variation in how different fan groups perceive their respective clubs and the overall characteristics of the league. These differences provide valuable insights into the league’s positioning and the factors influencing fan loyalty.

As an example, the following article provides a brief examination of the causal relationships between the perception of EHC Olten and key characteristics of the Sky Swiss League; it explores how these club perceptions and league attributes shape fans’ intentions to continue following the team, offering a focused perspective from EHC Olten supporters.

The conceptual framework

The conceptual framework applied in this study builds on the work of Kunkel et al. (2017), who examined how sports team brands influence fan behaviour through the league brand. The model was adapted to reflect the cultural and contextual nuances of professional ice hockey in Switzerland. Figure 1 presents a visual representation of the model, illustrating the variables under examination and the hypothesized causal relationships between them. See Kunkel et al. (2017) for detailed definitions of the variables.

Club brand

A club brand embodies a sports team’s unique identity, characteristics, and emotional connections with its fans (Bridgewater, 2010). In this study, key factors shaping a club brand include arena atmosphere, team prestige, excitement, management effectiveness, social association, star players, and tradition (see Kunkel et al., 2017). These elements can influence fan perception, engagement, and loyalty, ultimately contributing to both the club’s and the league’s success. Club brands can shape the league’s overall image by enhancing the league’s appeal and attract fans who may indirectly support the competition (Mason, 1999; Richelieu & Pons, 2008). A well-established club brand may foster emotional connections, increase fan retention, and drive game attendance, thereby strengthening the league (Richelieu, 2021; Mereu, 2025).

League brand

A league brand represents the collective perception of a professional sports league, shaped by its identity, atmosphere, star players, competitive balance, and traditions (Mason, 1999; Koenigstorfer et al., 2010). These factors influence fan engagement, attract spectators, and contribute to the league’s overall image (Fetchko et al., 2018; Wann & James, 2018). A strong league brand differentiates the competition from its rivals, fosters fan loyalty, and ensures long-term commercial viability (Batchelor & Formentin, 2008; Teed et al., 2009). Effective league branding can foster business growth, as it communicates the league’s value to its target audience through strategic promotion (Richelieu & Pons, 2008; Karg et al., 2022). 

Keep watching the team

Viewing intention reflects a fan’s commitment to continuing their engagement with their favourite team (Hsieh et al., 2011; Mereu, 2023). This commitment can affect both club sustainability and the league’s overall success (Mason, 1999; Batchelor & Formentin, 2008). It is shaped by the interplay between the league and club brands, which collectively influence the fan experience (Kunkel et al., 2017). A strong league brand enhances the league’s perceived value, motivating fans to remain involved (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2012; Havard, 2014; Kaplan, 2022). 

Methodology

This study follows a positivist approach with a quantitative methodology, focusing on EHC Olten’s spectator base. Data were collected between 3 and 25 December 2024, using a self-administered online questionnaire distributed through EHC Olten’s online channels. The questionnaire was adapted from Kunkel et al. (2017) and included 24 items measured on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = “strongly disagree” to 7 = “strongly agree”). 

The p-value represents the statistical significance of a causal relationship, β the strength and direction of the causal relationship, and the mean score represents the arithmetic average, serving as a measure of central tendency that summarizes the typical value within a range of responses (Saunders et al., 2023).

Analysis

The following analysis examines the causal relationships between individual independent variables of EHC Olten’s club brand and the dependent variables of the Sky Swiss League brand, as well as their impact on viewing intentions. The sample of EHC Olten fans consists of 148 respondents and illustrates a strong local fanbase with a solid core of committed season ticket holders. Also, the model fit shows a robust and reliable framework for examining the relationships among the investigated variables through structural equation modeling.

There is a good atmosphere in my team’s stadium (H1a)

Figure 2 illustrates how the perceived atmosphere at the EHC Olten arena, the Eisstadion Kleinholz, affects the characteristics of the Sky Swiss League.

The atmosphere at EHC Olten matches significantly enhances perceptions of the Sky Swiss League’s attractiveness as a spectator sport (H1aw, β = 0.303, p < 0.001). However, the mean score of 3.37 indicates that while gameday experiences contribute positively, improvements are needed to elevate the league’s overall appeal. Additionally, the stadium atmosphere strengthens the league’s escapist value (H1av, β = 0.271, p = 0.003, mean = 4.70), showing that fans view a lively environment as a way to disconnect from daily life. Arena atmosphere also positively influences perceptions of the league’s educational value (H1au, β = 0.207, p = 0.018), excitement (H1at, β = 0.208, p = 0.028), and representation of Swiss ice hockey (H1as, β = 0.332, p < 0.001). However, moderate mean scores suggest room for improvement in these areas. Furthermore, a vibrant matchday atmosphere enhances perceptions of league management (H1aq, β = 0.322, p < 0.001), nostalgia (H1ap, β = 0.184, p = 0.046), and talent development (H1am, β = 0.175, p = 0.053).  

Despite these positive effects, fans perceive league-wide arena atmospheres as lacking vibrancy (H1ai, β = 0.495, p < 0.001, mean = 3.71). Strengthening links between EHC Olten’s strong gameday experience and broader league narratives could enhance the Sky Swiss League’s overall appeal and engagement.

My team gives the Sky Swiss League prestige (H1b)

Figure 3 depicts the impact of EHC Olten’s perceived team prestige on the defining characteristics of the Sky Swiss League.

The analysis identifies a negative relationship between team-contributed prestige and the perceived attractiveness of the Sky Swiss League (H1bw, β = -0.236, p = 0.005). With a mean score of 3.37 for league attractiveness, EHC Olten fans appear to prioritize their team’s significance over the overall appeal of the league. Similarly, team prestige negatively impacts fans’ appreciation of the league’s visual branding (H1br, β = -0.184, p = 0.043, mean = 3.80) and perceptions of league management (H1bq, β = -0.170, p = 0.047, mean = 3.25). Moreover, team prestige negatively influences perceptions of the league-wide arena atmosphere (H1bi, β = -0.277, p < 0.001, mean = 3.71) and rivalry intensity (H1bl, β = -0.168, p = 0.031, mean = 3.53), suggesting that EHC Olten fans may see their team’s environment as superior while downplaying league-wide experiences. 

These findings indicate a strong team-centric bias, where fans view their club’s achievements as independent from league governance and branding. This lack of integration between team and league identity may contribute to fragmented league perceptions. Strengthening the connection between the club and the league’s broader image could enhance overall fan engagement and league cohesion.

Following my team is very exciting (H1c)

Figure 4 illustrates how perceived excitement for EHC Olten influences the key attributes of the Sky Swiss League.

Excitement surrounding EHC Olten positively influences perceptions of the Sky Swiss League’s attractiveness (H1cw, β = 0.172, p = 0.045). However, the relatively low mean score of 3.37 for league attractiveness suggests that while team excitement contributes positively, the league’s overall appeal remains moderate. Similarly, excitement enhances perceptions of the league as representing Swiss ice hockey (H1cs, β = 0.243, p = 0.004), though the mean score of 3.55 indicates room for improvement in strengthening this association. Team excitement also supports the perception of the league as an escape from daily routines (H1cv, β = 0.163, p = 0.061, mean = 4.70) and as a contributor to hockey knowledge (H1cu, β = 0.251, p = 0.003, mean = 3.95). Moreover, it strengthens beliefs in the league’s management (H1cq, β = 0.200, p = 0.022, mean = 3.25) and its role in fostering social engagement (H1cj, β = 0.250, p = 0.004, mean = 5.47). Excitement further enhances perceptions of rivalry intensity (H1cl, β = 0.323, p < 0.001) and league-wide atmosphere (H1ci, β = 0.164, p = 0.039), though both aspects require further development. 

Overall, while excitement about EHC Olten positively impacts various league perceptions, broader league-wide initiatives are needed to strengthen engagement, competitive intensity, and fan experience across all arenas.

The management of my team does a good job (H1d)

Figure 5 shows how the perception on the management of EHC Olten by its fans influences the attributes of the Sky Swiss League.

The perception of effective team management positively influences fans’ belief that the Sky Swiss League is well managed (H1dq, β = 0.189, p = 0.016). This suggests that confidence in EHC Olten’s operations translates into a more favourable view of league governance. However, the mean score of 3.25 indicates that league management is still perceived somewhat negatively, highlighting the need for stronger league-wide governance efforts. Also, strong team management positively affects the perception that the league supports young player development (H1dm, β = 0.204, p = 0.009), with a mean score of 4.93 indicating that fans generally view the league as effective in this area. However, team management perception negatively affects the belief that the league provides escapism (H1dv, β = -0.159, p = 0.041, mean = 4.70), suggesting that fans who highly value EHC Olten’s management, focus more on the club than the league for emotional distracting engagement. 

These findings indicate that while effective team management strengthens perceptions of the league’s governance and player development, its influence on emotional and experiential aspects of the league is limited. Strengthening league-wide engagement strategies may help bridge this gap and enhance overall fan perception.

I follow the team because my friends follow the same team (H1e)

Figure 6 depicts the effects of team association and friends of EHC Olten fans on Sky Swiss League’s brand characteristics.

Social connections among EHC Olten fans significantly shape their perceptions of the Sky Swiss League. Fans who engage with the team for social reasons, report a strong positive relationship with the belief that the league provides an escape from daily life (H1ev, β = 0.220, p = 0.003). With a mean score of 4.70, escapism is a moderately valued aspect of the league, and social bonds among fans enhance this perception. Social engagement also positively influences the perception that the league contributes to hockey knowledge (H1eu, β = 0.142, p = 0.046), though the mean score of 3.95 suggests its educational role is seen as somewhat limited. Additionally, social connections strengthen nostalgic associations with the league (H1ep, β = 0.236, p = 0.002, mean = 4.96) and reinforce the league’s role in fostering social interaction (H1ej, β = 0.351, p < 0.001, mean = 5.47), indicating that fans highly value its communal function.  

These findings underscore the league’s importance as a platform for socialization, nostalgia, and escapism. Strengthening initiatives that enhance the communal experience could further increase fan engagement and reinforce the league’s emotional and functional appeal.

My team has players who I would describe as star players (H1f)

Figure 7 shows how the perception of having star players at EHC Olten impacts characteristics of the Sky Swiss League’s brand.

The presence of star players at EHC Olten positively influences perceptions of the Sky Swiss League’s attractiveness (H1fw, β = 0.210, p = 0.021), suggesting that high-calibre players enhance the league’s spectator appeal. However, the relatively low mean score of 3.37 indicates that broader efforts are needed to improve the league’s overall attractiveness. Star players also contribute to the perception that the league enhances hockey knowledge (H1fu, β = 0.231, p = 0.010, mean = 3.95), implying that their performances serve as educational touchpoints for fans. Additionally, they positively impact fans’ appreciation of the league’s branding (H1fr, β = 0.193, p = 0.050, mean = 3.80) and the perception that the league features an attractive playing style (H1fo, β = 0.237, p = 0.011, mean = 4.36). The presence of star players significantly strengthens perceptions of league rivalries (H1fl, β = 0.311, p < 0.001, mean = 3.53) and the belief that the league includes other prominent players (H1fk, β = 0.532, p < 0.001, mean = 3.47), though both aspects require further development given the rather low mean scores. 

Overall, star players enhance multiple league attributes, including appeal, rivalry intensity, and brand identity. However, targeted initiatives are needed to maximize their impact on the league’s image and competitive narratives.

My team has a strong tradition (H1g)

Figure 8 offers a visual representation of the influence of EHC Olten’s team tradition on attributes of the Sky Swiss League’s brand.

Fans’ perception of EHC Olten’s strong tradition negatively impacts their view of the Sky Swiss League’s competitive balance, particularly the belief that any team can win (H1gn, β = -0.261, p = 0.007). While the mean score of 4.82 indicates moderate agreement with the league’s overall competitive balance, the negative association suggests that fans of historically strong teams may see the league as less competitive. This perception may stem from a belief that tradition-rich clubs like EHC Olten hold a dominant position, creating a disparity in competition. Conversely, EHC Olten’s tradition positively influences fans’ perception of the league’s historical legacy (H1gh, β = 0.205, p = 0.033), reinforcing its broader tradition. However, the mean score of 3.97 suggests a neutral stance on the league’s historical strength.  

These findings indicate that while strong club traditions enhance the league’s historical identity, they may also contribute to scepticism about its competitive balance. To address this, the league and EHC Olten could integrate historical narratives while promoting competitive parity to enhance fan engagement and perception of fairness within the league.

Club brand and fans’ intentions to continue watching their team in the future (H2)

Figure 9 illustrates the impact of club brand variables on fans’ future viewing intentions toward their team.

The analysis reveals a strong positive relationship between the excitement of following EHC Olten and fans’ intentions to continue watching matches (H2c, β = 0.414, p < 0.001). This highlights the role of emotional engagement in fostering fan loyalty and sustaining future attendance. The high mean score of 5.48 suggests that fans generally find their experience with the team engaging and enjoyable, reinforcing the team’s positive impact on its supporter base. Additionally, the perception of EHC Olten having star players is positively associated with future viewing intentions, though the relationship falls slightly outside the significance threshold (H2f, β = 0.167, p = 0.079). With a mean score of 4.30, this finding suggests that star players contribute to the team’s appeal, likely through their entertainment value and on-ice performance.  

These results emphasize the importance of maintaining and enhancing both emotional and functional aspects of the fan experience. Competitive performances, compelling player narratives, and an engaging gameday atmosphere may sustain long-term fan commitment and strengthen the connection between the team and its supporters.

League brand and fans’ intentions to continue watching their team in the future (H3)

Figure 10 demonstrates the effect of league brand variables on fans’ likelihood of continuing to watch their team.

The analysis shows that while certain aspects of the league brand influence fan engagement, others may have an indirect or even negative effect. Perceiving the league as a source of hockey knowledge negatively impacts future attendance intentions (H3u, β = -0.192, p = 0.024), with a mean score of 3.95 suggesting that fans may feel the league does not sufficiently fulfil their educational needs. Similarly, the belief that the league has a strong tradition shows a weak negative effect on future attendance (H3h, β = -0.138, p = 0.079, mean = 3.97), indicating that while tradition is valued, it may not be a primary driver of fan engagement. In contrast, the perception that the league effectively represents Swiss ice hockey positively influences attendance intentions (H3s, β = 0.168, p = 0.059), though the mean score of 3.55 suggests room for improvement. Strengthening the league’s alignment with national pride and cultural relevance could enhance engagement.  

These findings suggest that to optimize fan retention, the league should focus on branding strategies that emphasize emotional and cultural connections rather than relying solely on tradition or knowledge-based engagement.

Summary

The atmosphere at EHC Olten matches significantly enhances perceptions of the Sky Swiss League’s appeal, excitement, and tradition, strengthening both functional and emotional fan engagement. However, league-wide arena atmosphere and rivalry intensity require improvement. Fans prioritize their team’s success over broader league dynamics, leading to negative perceptions of league management, branding, and competitiveness. Excitement surrounding EHC Olten strongly influences fan loyalty and engagement, though broader league variables receive moderate evaluations. While team management positively impacts governance and player development perceptions, emotional aspects like escapism remain less affected, highlighting the need for better integration of team and league narratives.

Conclusion

This piece explained how EHC Olten’s club-brand dynamics influence the Sky Swiss League’s brand and fan engagement. The findings indicate that club-level factors, such as arena atmosphere, team prestige, excitement, management effectiveness, social association, star players, and tradition, play a significant role in shaping perceptions of the league. Specifically, a vibrant matchday atmosphere enhances the league’s attractiveness, escapist value, and excitement, reinforcing emotional and functional fan engagement. Additionally, team excitement and the presence of star playerspositively influence fans’ continued interest in attending matches, demonstrating the importance of compelling on-ice performances and player narratives.

However, the study also highlights a team-centric bias among EHC Olten fans, where the club’s success is viewed independently of the league’s governance and branding. This results in negative associations between team prestige and perceptions of league management, visual identity, and competitive balance, suggesting a disconnect between club loyalty and league-wide appeal. Furthermore, while tradition is valued, it does not strongly drive engagement, emphasizing the need for a modernized league narrative.

Limitations

These findings only refer to the sample of EHC Olten fans. 

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