The following blog post summarises my study «TikTok Content Categories and User Engagement Behavior: Alisha Lehmann – Celebrity Athlete and Influencer», published in the 2024 IGI Global publication «Using Influencer Marketing as a Digital Business Strategy» by S. Teixeira, S. Teixeira, Z. Oliveira, and E. Souza (Eds.). The idea was tested in «TikTok content categories, engagement behaviour and sports viewership: a pilot study on the NHL’s Stanley Cup 2022 final series» and further detailed in this study.

Introduction

This research explores the impact of influencer marketing on TikTok, emphasising the evolving dynamics between content categories and user engagement behaviours. Focused on Alisha Lehmann, a Swiss professional football player and influencer, the study empirically examines the influence of various content categories on her TikTok account. The study underscores the importance of understanding how different content types shape user behaviour in an age when influencers and brands wield considerable influence on social media platforms. Employing multiple regression analysis, the study reveals causal relationships between content categories and user engagement. The findings provide valuable insights for content creators and marketers, informing the development of influencer marketing strategies, specifically in the context of female athletes.

Content and user behaviour

Influencer marketing utilises individuals with substantial social media followings to endorse products or services, effectively enhancing brand awareness, engagement, and sales (Haenlein et al., 2020; Leban & Voyer, 2020). The evolving landscape of social media has provided influencers and brands with diverse marketing channels to achieve business objectives (Kietzmann et al., 2011; Batra & Keller, 2016). Social media has also transformed spectator sports experiences, allowing fans to engage with athletes and teams through various content types, shaping the foundation of brand experiences that contribute to fan satisfaction and loyalty (Sanderson, 2011; Chen et al., 2021; Pine & Gilmore, 2020). Content categories, influenced by strategic categorisation, contribute to communication and engagement objectives, with TikTok offering a variety beyond entertainment (Basch et al., 2021; Yang & Kang, 2021). The proactive planning of diverse content types across channels enables influencers to efficiently and consistently tell a story, but consideration of audience channel usage is crucial for effective content delivery (Klimsa, 2017; Batra & Keller, 2016; Ryan, 2020).

Celebrity athletes as influencers

Celebrity athletes leverage their fame and personal brand on social media, engaging a dedicated following, influencing lifestyle choices and societal views (Sanderson, 2011; Mahmoudian et al., 2021). Beyond showcasing athletic prowess, social media allows athletes to connect personally with fans by sharing behind-the-scenes glimpses, fostering authenticity and loyalty (Sutera, 2013; Geurin-Eagleman & Burch, 2016). It provides a direct avenue for athletes to control their narrative, addressing controversies promptly and preserving their image (Zhou et al., 2021). Social media’s unparalleled reach and engagement, as seen on Instagram and TikTok, facilitate real-time interactions, building a sense of community and belonging (Datareportal, 2023; Sokolova & Kefi, 2020). From a business perspective, social media offers lucrative opportunities for brand collaborations, capitalising on athletes’ credibility and reach (Haenlein et al., 2020; Von Felbert & Breuer, 2020).

TikTok and influencer marketing for a celebrity athlete

Investigating TikTok’s role in influencer marketing presents an academically compelling pursuit given its rapid growth and influence, with over 1 billion users globally (Datareportal, 2023). TikTok’s unique video format challenges influencers to convey impactful messages in seconds, reshaping the influencer marketing landscape (Zuo & Wang, 2019). Alisha Lehmann, a Swiss women’s football player and internet celebrity, with millions of followers and likes on TikTok, offers an intriguing subject for research (alishalehmann7 on TikTok, 2023). As a celebrity athlete, Lehmann’s broad appeal extends beyond sports enthusiasts, providing insights into how such figures navigate influencer marketing on a dynamic social media platform (Geurin, 2017). Analysing her activities sheds light on evolving influencer marketing strategies, impacting personal brands, sponsorships, and transforming the sports industry’s marketing landscape (Haenlein et al., 2020; Sanderson, 2011; Leo & von Kuczkowski, 2020).

Theoretical background

Social media content categories

Social media content categories serve as thematic divisions, allowing creators to organise and structure content on platforms consciously or unconsciously (Hu et al., 2014). These categories, spanning diverse subjects within a profile, contribute to a well-rounded experience for followers, encompassing personal and professional aspects (Geurin-Eagleman & Burch, 2016). Their influence on engagement is substantial, tailoring content to audience segments, increasing relevance, and fostering predictability in posting schedules (Dolan et al., 2016; Klimsa, 2017). Varied content categories prevent monotony, attracting a broader audience, promoting community engagement, and encouraging meaningful conversations (Newman et al., 2013; Sutera, 2013; Sanderson, 2011). Analysing engagement patterns helps creators in refining strategies, optimising schedules, and enhancing content quality (Vale & Fernandes, 2018; Ryan, 2020). Algorithms favouring highly engaging content contribute to increased visibility and discoverability, emphasising the importance of resonant content (Hubspot, 2023; Kietzmann et al., 2011). In summary, social media content categories strategically organise diverse content, influencing engagement behaviours and enhancing user experience, community connections, and the success of creators and brands (Na et al., 2020; Newman et al., 2013). The content categories applied in this study are defined as follows:

• Active personal life: TikTok videos in this category reveal a celebrity athlete’s daily life, including routines, hobbies, and interactions. This content provides an authentic look beyond their professional persona, fostering relatability and connection with fans (Geurin-Eagleman & Burch, 2016; Arai et al., 2014; Sokolova & Kefi, 2020).
• Aesthetic personal life: TikTok videos in this category highlight a celebrity athlete’s aesthetics, focusing on visually appealing content like fashionable looks and stylish photoshoots. Emphasising visual storytelling and creative editing, these videos aim to inspire and captivate viewers through the athlete’s aesthetic preferences (Kim & Sagas, 2014; Barta et al., 2023; Sokolova & Kefi, 2020).
• Active athlete life: These TikTok videos showcase athletes in sports competitions, training, and on-field performances, offering highlights of their prowess and key achievements. Providing an immersive look into their professional journey, the content reveals the athlete’s commitment, expertise, and challenges faced in their sports career (Geurin-Eagleman & Burch, 2016; Arai et al., 2014).
• Non-active or non-sport athlete life: TikTok videos in this category showcase a celebrity athlete in non-sport situations, offering behind-the-scenes glimpses of off-field experiences like interviews or daily life. Providing insights into personality and off-duty activities, these videos allow fans to connect on a more personal level beyond athletics (Sanderson, 2011; Arai et al., 2014; Sutera, 2013).
• TikTok games: In this TikTok category, celebrity athletes engage in interactive games, participating in popular challenges, trends, and activities on the platform. The videos showcase the athlete’s sense of humour, creativity, and ability to join viral trends, resonating with TikTok’s interactive and entertaining nature (Zuo & Wang, 2019; Su et al., 2020).
• Promotion of or information about products and services: This category features celebrity athletes promoting products or services, showcasing benefits in a relatable manner. Videos include demonstrations, endorsements, or testimonials, emphasising the athlete’s personal connection to the brand. Calls-to-action encourage viewers to explore and purchase the promoted items (Haenlein et al., 2020; Brooks et al., 2021; Yocco, 2016).

User engagement behaviours

The importance of user engagement in social media can be emphasised by defining it as a platform for online interactions with three tiers of engagement: consumption, contribution, and creation (Ryan, 2020; Vale & Fernandes, 2018). With that in mind, athletes should understand the impact of different engagement behaviours on their brand and effectiveness as influencers (Sutera, 2013). Engagement, including discussions and shared content interactions, signifies genuine interest, enhancing credibility (Na et al., 2020). For celebrity athletes, engagement fosters intimacy, loyalty, and advocacy (Sanderson, 2011; Mahmoudian et al., 2021). It also provides insights into audience preferences, guiding content strategy (Vale & Fernandes, 2018). In influencer marketing, brands prioritise active engagement for effective promotion and collaboration (Haenlein et al., 2020; Brooks et al., 2021). Understanding and nurturing engagement behaviours is vital for athlete influencers, ensuring authenticity, growing reach, loyalty, and successful brand partnerships in the dynamic world of influencer marketing (Sutera, 2013; Arai et al., 2014; Haenlein et al., 2020; Mahmoudian et al., 2021). User engagement behaviours for this study are defined as follows:

• TikTok video views signify how many times a video has been watched on the TikTok platform.
• Likes represent the number of taps on the “heart” icon, indicating user appreciation.
• Comments are textual responses expressing thoughts or engaging in discussions related to the content.
• Saves refer to users bookmarking or saving a video for later viewing.
• Shares indicate how many times a video has been shared, expanding its reach to other TikTok profiles or social media platforms.

Research question and conceptual model

The preceding discourse laid the theoretical groundwork for the following research question: “How do individual TikTok content categories, including (1) active personal life, (2) aesthetic personal life, (3) active athlete life, (4) non-active or non-sport athlete life, (5) TikTok games, and (6) promotion of or information about products and services, influence user engagement behaviours, such as (a) video views, (b) likes, (c) comments, (d) saves, and (e) shares, on the official TikTok account of celebrity athlete and influencer Alisha Lehmann?” Figure 1 provides a visualisation of the conceptual model and the suggested relationships.

Methodology

This study utilises thematic coding and multiple regression analysis to categorise video content and explore its associations with user engagement behaviours. Data from 91 TikTok videos on Alisha Lehmann’s official account, spanning June 30, 2022, to August 12, 2023, were manually coded based upon the respective theory. Metrics like views, likes, comments, saves, and shares were documented for each video by August 19, 2023. Standardisation and normalisation of values was conducted where necessary for accurate analysis. The study employed multiple regression analysis in SPSS to assess causal relationships between the variables, detailed further in the subsequent section.

Data collection

Step 1: Preparing the spreadsheet. The initial phase of data collection involves creating a spreadsheet to record essential information. This comprises columns such as Video date, content URL, post copy, info (containing data aiding video categorisation), channel followers, and metrics like likes, saves, shares, comments, and views. The selection of these columns aligns with technical features relevant to user engagement behaviours on the specific social media platform, as detailed in the preceding section.

Step 2: Access and recording of the necessary values. To analyse the videos in the study, they are accessed ideally in reverse-chronological order to facilitate data recording. During video access, all specified data is entered into the spreadsheet. Except for channel followers at the time of posting, data can be directly obtained from the video’s access page. For channel followers, socialblade.com is used for easy and free access. If third-party websites do not provide this data, additional research is conducted to approximate values for each post on its posting date.

Step 3: Extension of the spreadsheet with video content categories and recording of respective values. The spreadsheet is expanded with columns reflecting the final content categories, determined by the information recorded in the info column during Step 1. If the thematic content analysis lacks clarity or essential details, a reevaluation of the respective video is conducted for additional recording. Each video is then assigned a content category code (Saunders et al., 2023). The defined categories for this study are: active personal life, aesthetic personal life, active athlete life, non-active or non-sport athlete life, TikTok games, and promotion or information. Coding involves entering “1” in the relevant content category column, representing the video’s primary theme, and “0” in other category columns, repeating this process for each video. This compilation ensures all necessary data for analysing presumed causal relationships is captured.

Step 4: Normalisation of engagement behaviour values. Engagement behaviour values per video require normalisation due to variations tied to the channel’s follower count on the publication date (Cvijikj & Michahelles, 2013). To achieve this, new columns are generated for each normalised engagement behaviour value. This involves dividing the original engagement value (e.g., video likes) by the channel followers on the video’s publishing date. The column names for the normalised values include the suffix ‘_ratio’ for clarity in conveying their significance.

Step 5: Standardisation of content category and normalised engagement behaviour values. To ensure equitable treatment of variables with diverse scales and units in regression analysis (Saunders et al., 2023), standardising data is crucial. Mean and standard deviation calculations for each variable (content categories and engagement behaviours) are performed using Excel functions like AVERAGE and STDEV, placed at the column bottoms. Subsequently, new columns for each variable requiring standardisation are generated, with the Excel formula STANDARDIZE applied to achieve standardisation. This procedure is iterated for all variables designated for the regression analysis, paving the way for the subsequent regression analysis.

Step 6: Multiple regression analysis to assess causal relationships between content categories and engagement behaviours. Drawing on the methodologies of Cvijikj and Michahelles (2013), Vale and Fernandes (2018), and Doyle et al. (2020), the hypothesised causal relationships were examined through multiple regression analysis. This approach is apt for assessing links between social media content categories and user engagement behaviours, providing a quantitative measure of how changes in content types correspond to changes in engagement metrics. By assessing the statistical significance of these relationships, the analysis yields empirical evidence of causation, aiding researchers in comprehending the impact of diverse content categories on user engagement (De Vries et al., 2012). Renowned for its precision, confounding factor control, and robust statistical inferences, regression analysis stands as a legitimate and widely accepted approach in social media research for investigating causality (Vale and Fernandes, 2018; Saunders et al., 2023).

Data analysis

This study employs an exploratory approach to analyse the causal connections between video content categories and user engagement behaviours on a celebrity athlete’s TikTok channel. A pragmatic and context-sensitive methodology is utilised to ascertain the statistical significance, ensuring the credibility of the findings.

Statistical significance

In scientific research, significance levels (p-values) are conventionally set at 0.05, 0.01, or 0.001, crucial for hypothesis testing (Saunders et al., 2023). However, applying these thresholds universally can lead to issues as fields differ in required confidence levels. Medical research often demands stringent thresholds to minimise false positives, while social sciences may accept a higher error rate (Argamon, 2017). In exploratory marketing research, a higher p-value might be acceptable, facilitating novel discoveries (Lew, 2016). Tong (2019) suggests entertaining exploratory analysis for hypothesis generation rather than testing. Thus, the common significance levels, while benchmarks, are deemed inappropriate for this study, which therefore adopts a flexible and context-aware approach in data analysis and discussion to ensure reliability and validity.

Results

Of the 91 analysed videos, Alisha Lehmann’s active professional life content exhibited the highest statistical significance in influencing engagement behaviours, notably on views (p<.001; β=.441), likes (p<.001; β=.462), comments (p=.003; β=.362), saves (p=.002; β=.365), and shares (p=.002; β=.363). Videos depicting her personal life from an aesthetic perspective also showed notable significance, particularly on shares (p=.128; β=.184) and saves (p=.261; β=.135). Non-active or non-sport professional life content had the third-strongest significance, impacting likes (p=.292; β=.118) and comments (p=.365; β=.106) most prominently. TikTok games and promotional content had considerably weaker or negligible impacts on engagement behaviours. The exclusion of active personal life content was due to collinearity issues. Collinearity, indicating a strong linear relationship between variables, could compromise the model’s ability to distinguish unique contributions, leading to unstable and unreliable estimates (Field, 2018; Saunders et al., 2023). In summary, Alisha Lehmann’s active professional life has the most substantial impact on engagement, followed by aesthetic personal life and non-active or non-sport professional life, while TikTok games and promotional content exhibit notably weaker significance. The exclusion of active personal life videos requires further investigation.

Discussion

Theoretical findings

The findings of this study reveal that videos featuring Alisha Lehmann as an active, successful female footballer in her professional life have the most significant positive impact on her followers on TikTok. This aligns with previous research on athletes’ social media content and indicates that content focused on athletic performance generates higher consumer engagement (Geurin-Eagleman & Burch, 2016; Doyle et al., 2022). Alisha Lehmann’s videos inspire and empower followers, establishing her as a contemporary and successful figure in European women’s football. The study challenges arguments favouring post-based virality over persona-based fame on TikTok, as videos depicting Alisha’s non-active or non-sport professional life significantly influence likes and comments (Abidin, 2021). Additionally, aesthetic personal life videos impact shares and saves, emphasising followers’ interest in a comprehensive portrayal of her persona (Arai et al., 2014). Promotional or informational videos exhibit a statistically insignificant influence, suggesting TikTok users prioritise entertainment over information (Zuo & Wang, 2019). Similarly, TikTok game videos show weak or negligible statistical significance, challenging the platform’s presumed emphasis on entertainment (cf. Zuo & Wang, 2019; Su et al., 2020). Yet, this point should be contextualised; TikTok games represent only one aspect of the platform’s entertainment, involving interactive challenges in a specific setting (TikTok, 2023).

Practical implications

This study underscores the significance of emphasising a celebrity athlete’s active professional life on TikTok. Alisha Lehmann’s videos showcasing her athletic endeavours achieved the highest statistical significance in user engagement, including views, likes, comments, saves, and shares. This highlights the audience’s heightened engagement when athletes share insights into their training routines, matches, and behind-the-scenes moments. For content creators and athletes aiming to enhance online presence and engagement, focusing on their professional journey and achievements proves to be an effective TikTok strategy (Sutera, 2013; Geurin-Eagleman & Burch, 2016). Videos highlighting the aesthetics in Alisha Lehmann’s personal life, the second most influential category, significantly impact shares and saves. This indicates an interest in sharing or revisiting content portraying the personal aspects of a female athlete’s life, particularly with visually appealing elements like trendy outfits, chic photoshoots, or alluring poses (Sokolova & Kefi, 2020). While aesthetics contribute to brand experience, athletes like Alisha Lehmann must be cautious of ethical concerns related to sexually suggestive content, as it may overshadow athletic achievements and perpetuate stereotypes (Kim & Sagas, 2014). Videos featuring Alisha Lehmann’s non-active or non-sport professional life, while statistically significant in likes and comments, indicate viewer interest in her broader career as a celebrity athlete. This suggests content creators, i.e. sports personalities, should share off-field glimpses, interviews, and daily life moments to enhance follower engagement and brand presence. It’s advised to strike a balance between showcasing professional and personal aspects to cater to a wider audience (Sanderson, 2011; Arai et al., 2013; Baetzgen & Tropp, 2013). On the other hand, TikTok games and promotional content showed minimal impact on engagement metrics, indicating these categories might be less effective for generating interaction on TikTok. While entertaining, TikTok games did not significantly drive likes, comments, saves, views, or shares. Similarly, promotional videos had limited influence. Further research is needed to explore their role in a holistic brand experience, considering the possible indirect value they might contribute to aesthetics, emotions, cognition, and behaviour, as suggested by Pine and Gilmore (2020) and Schmitt (1999), potentially fostering brand loyalty.

Conclusion

This research examines 91 TikTok videos from Alisha Lehmann’s official account, employing a multiple regression analysis to investigate the impact of content categories on user engagement. Alisha Lehmann’s active professional life, showcasing athletic prowess, emerges as the most influential, driving high engagement levels in views, likes, comments, saves, and shares. Videos emphasising her personal life through aesthetics rank second, notably impacting shares and saves, emphasising the value of a holistic representation. Content related to non-sport professional life shows significance, especially in likes and comments. Conversely, TikTok games and promotional content exhibit limited impact on engagement, emphasising the need for content creators and marketers to prioritise athlete journeys and personal facets while considering the broader brand experience. These insights guide the crafting of effective content strategies on TikTok, promoting authenticity, audience engagement, and a comprehensive portrayal of celebrity athletes.

Limitations and future research

This study, focusing on the TikTok account of celebrity athlete Alisha Lehmann, provides specific insights without generalisability. Replication with diverse athletes is necessary for broader applicability. Limitations include the exclusion of pre-June 2022 videos and the collinearity-related exclusion of content on Alisha’s active personal life. The study takes a pragmatic approach to statistical significance without fixed thresholds, a potentially unconventional aspect warranting further investigation in future research.

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